Human
Languages
Creativity
of linguistic knowledge is that we can produce and
understand completely new utterances and express and understand entirely
new concepts.
It is called productivity
that human languages enable theri speakers to produce and infinite
number of sentences.
The fact that human language is organized at two
levels or layers simultaneously is called duality.
The process a language is passed from one generation
to the next is called cultural transmission.
Animal communication entails communicationof a number
of stimuli, but lacks certain aspects of human language. Aniaml language does
not involve reflecting or analysing their own communication, a property of
human language known as reflexivity.
-Prperties of human languages include productivity,
reflexivity, displacement, arbitrariness, recursion duality and cultural
transmission.-
Animals do not communicateawhat happened to them last
year by the boutique on the corner of X Street, but about here and now.
However, human can talk abour distant places or events, even gossip.
This ability is called displacement.
Lack of a direct relationship between
signs and the objects they refer to shows that human language
is arbitrary and it is called arbitrariness.
Small units combine to form larger ones. I.e. sounds
form morphemes, morphemes combine to make words and words make sentences. It is
called discreetness.
All human Languages have nouns and verbs. The
linguistic rules that are shared by all human languages are called language universals.
Language
Acquisition Device (LAD) is our mental ability that we are
born with to be coded with language specific data.
-The LAD ide, proposed by Chomskey, is also called
innateness hypothesis.-
Linguistic
competence and lisnguistic performance
The language knowledge speakers of a language have is
called linguistic competence. Linguistic competence is the sum of all
the language knowledge. It means and includes the knowlledge of sound systems,
meanings Word formation and syntactic structures that speakers of a language
have. Linguistic performence, on the other hand, is the actual use of
this knowledgeat a specific instance.
Descriptive
Grammar and Prescriptive Grammar Performance
Prescriptive
Grammar is the approach that Languages should follow a set of
rules for ‘corect’ use of that language. Prescriptive approach advocates for
certain rules and uses of a language and regars any other use improper. Descriptive approach, on the other
hand, aims to describe how a languages Works in order to Express different
meanings.
I ain’t buying nothing à Acoording to
prescriptive approach, this is an ungrammatical use of English as it does not follow the rule on double
negation although it is commonly used among some English speakers and follows
rules of its own.
You was late last night à Descriptive
grammer explains how and to what purpose this structure is used.
Evolution
of Language
The
Divine Source Theory is that it’s God’s gift to humans.
Bow-wow Theory is that early humans
developed language by imitating sounds they hear in the nature, onomatopoeic
sounds like meow.
Pooh-pooh Theory is that early
humans produced sounds when they were experiencing strong emotions like pain.
Yo-he-yo Theory is that it is formed
when they needed to interact with each other in order to collectively work.
Artificial
Languages
Some Languages have been created by humans without an
actual speech community. The creator of an artifical language propose an entire
grammer, with phones morphemes, syntax and lexicon. Esperanto is the most
famous example of artifical languages. Esperanto did not have any speakers that
shaped and changed the language, but was devised by one person.
Phonetics
Phonetics is the study of speech sound. Phonetics has
three branches; articulatory, acoustic and auditory phonetics. Articulatory
phonetics studies how speech sounds are produced while auditory phonetics
studies how they are perceived and acoustic phonetics studies the sound waves
upon being produced by speech organs.
Bilabials:
are the sounds that are produced using both lips.[p] , [b] , [m] , [w]
Labiodentals: are those sounds
produced using upper teeth and lower lip. [f] , [v]
Dentals: are those produced by
placing the tongue either between upper and lower teeth or by placing the tip
of tongue at the back of the upper teeth. [θ] , [ð]
Alveolars: are produced by touching
the alveolar ridge with the front of the tongue.These sounds are
[t] , [d] , [s] , [z] , [n] , [l] , [r]
Palatals: are produced with tongue
and hard palate are called palatals ans these sounds are [tʃ] , [ʃ] , [ʒ] , [dʒ] , [j]
Velars: are produced with the back
of the tongue and vellum, soft palate. These are [k] , [g] , [ŋ]
Glottals: are produced through the
use of tongue when the space between the vocal cords, glotts, is open. These
are [h] and stop with [?]
,
English
Sounds According to manner of articulation
Stops:
are produced by stopping the air and then releasing it suddenly. These are [p]
, [b] , [t] , [d] , [k] , [g].
Fricatives: are produced by
hindering the air and letting air go through friction. These are [f] , [v] , [s] , [z] , [3] ,[θ] , [ð] , [ʃ]
Affiricates: are produced by
stopping the air initially then letting air go through friction. These are
Nasals: are produced by raising the
velum thereby stopping the air from going through the nasal cavity. These are
[m] , [n] , [ ŋ]
Liquids: are produced by letting the
air flow through the sides of the tongue. These are [l] , [r].
Glides: are produced with the tongue
moving in the process of production of these sounds. They are [w] , [j].
Vowels : All vowels are typically
voiced. Producing vowels, glottis is open and tongue position influences the
sound to be produced.
Phonology
Phonology is the study of sound patterns in a
language.
One concept that we need to know studying sound patterns is phonemes. Phonemes are individual sounds which
would change the meaning of a Word when replaced.
Phonemes are the broader category of these sounds while phones are actual productions in speech. In other words, while /i/
is a phoneme, [i] in seed and seen are are two phones as they are slightly
different from each other.
Allophones
à
/si:d/ about nazalization.
The vowel in a syllable is called a nucleus, while the preceding consonant
is called onset and the following
consonant is called coda.
Assimilation:
When the two sounds are produced in sequence and one becomes more like or th
same as the other one. I.e. good boy à gubboi
Elision: is omitting a sound in
speech to make speaking more efficient. I.e.
You and me à
juenmi
Linking: when two words are
combined.(Türkçe’deki ulama) I.e. That’s enough à
Semantics
Semantics is the study of meaning.
Componential Analysis: Mother is an
adult female human, so are aunt and woman. What is it that makes their meaning
different can be seen by looking at their semantic features throgh
componentinal analysis. As an example, mother is a mamber of parent but aunt is
not.
Homonyms or Homophones : The words
pronounced the same but have different meanings. I.e. flour and flower.
Homographs: thw words spelled the
same with different meanings. I.e. bear (animal) ,
bear (to carry)
Polysemy: book à
actual meaning is boddy of written work to be read by a large auidence.
Metonomy: Turkish Government as
Ankara.
Reversive: like x unlike
Hyponymy: pepper is a subgroup of
the group vegetable.This relationship between a group and its subgroups.
Pepper, courgette and leek are hyponyms of vegetable, while vegetable is the superordinate of papers. Subgroups of a
superordinate are called cohyponyms.
Semantic
Roles
In a sentence, the noun phrase that does the action is
called the agent. The entity that is affected by the action is called the
theme. Other semantic roles include location, source, goal and instrument.
If, instead of an action, there is a perception or
state, the noun phrase that does the ‘doing’ is an experiencer instead of an
agent.
Morphology
Study of the morphemes is defined as a Morphology. A
morpheme
is the smallest meaningful unit in the grammar of a language.For example,
Unladylike
;
consists of three
morphemes and four syllables. à un- 'not', lady
'(well behaved) female adult human', -like 'having the characteristics of'.
Morphemes that
are words themselves are called free
morpheme.(lady, like ..) Bound morphemes, on the other hand, can be
attached to the end of a free morpheme. These are called suffixes (like). Bound morphemes can precede other morphemes (un) and
are called prefixes.
Reduplication: is
repeating one morpheme and attaching the duplicate as a prefix, suffix or an
infix. (ex. yepyengi)
Portmanteu: mixing two morphemes to
form another. ‘Smog’ from smoke and fog.
There are two different
types of morphemes:
1)Derivational Morphemes: are those
that change the meaning or the grammatical category of the stem. (teach—teacher)
2) Inflectional Morphemes: are those that tell us about the grammatical
function of a word.
Back Formation: Escalate, for example is created by
removing -or from the Escelator. This is called.
Clipping: The element of reduction
that is noticeable in blending is even more apperent in the process described
as clipping. (gasoline – gas)
-
Paul Grice suggested
cooperative principle, that in a conversation we are expected to fulfill four
maxims: Maxim
of Quantity: the speaker’s contribution
in a conversation should be” as
informative as required”. In other words, contribution should not include more
information than required or less.
Maxim of
Quality: the speaker should say only things that he believes to be
true. By the help of this maxim , the hearers trust the speaker. Maxim
of Relevance: the speaker should be
relevant.
Maxim
of Manner: the speaker should be
clear,brief and olderly. As an example,Q: How was your day?A:oh, it was… Look the bus is late as usual, I don’t know it was Ok.Neither Clear , Nor orderly.
-
Convergence: When a speaker changes the style he
uses to decrease social distance.
Divergence: When the stlye is
changed to increase the social distance.
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